Cannabis Irrigation Frequency by Medium
Irrigation frequency in modern controlled environment agriculture is not governed by rigid calendar schedules or arbitrary rules of thumb; it is dictated by substrate hydrological physics, matric suction potentials, root-zone gas exchange, and dynamic plant transpiration. Different growing media exhibit vastly divergent physical properties: inert rockwool requires multi-shot precision crop steering based on Volumetric Water Content (VWC) dry-backs; coconut coir demands high-frequency fertigation to prevent catastrophic osmotic salt concentration; peat-based soilless mixes require moderate dry-down cycles to avoid anaerobic root asphyxiation; and organic living soil systems rely on continuous stable moisture tension to preserve delicate rhizosphere microbiology. This engineering guide details the biophysical equations of substrate water retention, establishes pulse irrigation standard operating procedures (SOP), breaks down P1, P2, and P3 irrigation phases, analyzes TDR moisture sensing data, and outlines medium-specific watering matrices for commercial cultivators.
Substrate Hydrology: Matric Potential, Porosity, and Volumetric Water Content
To engineer an optimal irrigation regimen, a cultivator must understand how water behaves inside the porous architecture of container root zones. In substrate physics, water is retained within interstitial spaces through capillary and surface tension forces known collectively as matric potential (Psim). Total water potential inside the substrate (Psisubstrate) is the sum of matric potential and osmotic potential (Psis):
Psisubstrate = Psim + Psis
Matric potential is always a negative value, representing the mechanical tension (suction force) that plant root hairs must overcome to pull water molecules away from substrate particle surfaces. As water evaporates and plants transpire, the largest pores (macropores) empty first, leaving water trapped only within microscopic pores (micropores). As the substrate dries, matric suction rises exponentially (becoming more negative), forcing roots to expend immense metabolic energy just to extract moisture.
Every horticultural medium is defined by three primary hydrological parameters:
- Total Porosity (TP %): The total percentage of container volume occupied by pore spaces rather than solid particles. High-performance horticultural substrates feature total porosities between 75% and 95%.
- Container Capacity (Field Capacity): The maximum volume of water a saturated container can retain against the downward pull of gravity after gravitational drainage ceases.
- Air-Filled Porosity (AFP %): The volume of pore space occupied by air when the substrate is at container capacity. Cannabis roots require a minimum AFP of 15% to 25% to ensure adequate dissolved oxygen diffusion and prevent root hypoxia.
In modern high-performance cultivation, growers quantify substrate moisture using Volumetric Water Content (VWC %), defined as the ratio of liquid water volume (Vw) relative to total bulk substrate volume (Vt):
VWC (\%) = ≤ft( (Vw / Vt) ) × 100
Managing irrigation frequency is the art of controlling the dry-back percentage (the decline in VWC between irrigation events and overnight) to steer plant morphology between vegetative biomass accumulation and generative flower development.
| Growing Medium | Total Porosity (%) | Air-Filled Porosity at Field Capacity (%) | Water Holding Capacity (%) | Optimal VWC Operating Window (%) | Target Inter-Day Dry-Back (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rockwool / Stonewool Blocks | 92 – 96% | 15 – 20% | 75 – 80% | 50% – 70% VWC | 15% – 30% Overnight Dry-Back |
| Coconut Coir (70/30 Coir/Perlite) | 85 – 90% | 20 – 25% | 60 – 65% | 45% – 65% VWC | 10% – 20% Maximum Dry-Back |
| Peat-Based Soilless (Pro-Mix HP) | 80 – 85% | 18 – 22% | 55 – 60% | 35% – 60% VWC | 25% – 40% Dry-Back |
| Organic Living Soil (Loam/Compost) | 50 – 65% | 10 – 15% | 40 – 50% | 25% – 40% VWC | Continuous Stable Tension (80-120 mbar) |
| Expanded Clay Pebbles (LECA) | 40 – 50% | 60 – 70% | 10 – 15% | 10% – 20% VWC | Instant Drainage / Hourly Pulse Flood |
In substrate cultivation, small dry-backs (10% to 15% VWC) steer the cannabis crop vegetatively, promoting rapid leaf expansion, thicker stems, and longer internodes. Large dry-backs (20% to 35% VWC) steer the crop generatively, inducing mild osmotic stress that triggers flower site initiation, tighter internodal spacing, and increased trichome and cannabinoid production. Master irrigation by manipulating dry-backs to match the plant’s developmental phase.
Rockwool / Stonewool: Precision Crop Steering and Multi-Shot P1-P3 Phases
Manufactured from molten basalt rock spun into fine fibers, horticultural rockwool represents the pinnacle of precision hydroponic substrates. Because rockwool features zero Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) and an extraordinary total porosity of over 94%, it holds massive volumes of water while maintaining 15% to 20% air-filled porosity even at full container capacity. However, because it has zero nutritional buffer, irrigation timing must be executed with mathematical precision.
In commercial facilities utilizing Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) moisture probes (such as Aroya or TrolMaster sensors), rockwool irrigation is partitioned into three distinct daily phases:
1. Phase 1 (P1): The Morning Ramping Phase
- Initiation Timing: Never irrigate the moment lights turn on. The root zone is cool, stomata are just opening, and transpiration is minimal. Initiate the first P1 shot 1.5 to 2.5 hours after lights-on, allowing the plant to begin active transpiration and deplete morning root-zone humidity.
- Shot Dynamics: Deliver a series of small, rapid “micro-shots” (typically 1% to 3% of total slab volume, roughly 60 to 120 mL per plant) spaced 15 to 30 minutes apart. Continue these micro-shots until the substrate reaches container capacity and achieves “first runoff” (typically 4 to 6 shots).
- Runoff Objective: Generate 10% to 15% total daily runoff during P1. This morning runoff flushes out concentrated fertilizer salts that accumulated overnight, resetting pore water EC to match fresh input EC.
2. Phase 2 (P2): The Transpiration Maintenance Phase
- Operational Objective: Maintain target peak VWC (typically 60% to 70% VWC) during peak light intensity and maximum Daily Light Integral (DLI).
- Shot Dynamics: Apply infrequent maintenance shots (1 to 2 shots spaced 1 to 2 hours apart) triggered only when VWC drops by 2% to 4%. The goal in P2 is to replace water transpired by the canopy without generating excessive runoff. If heavy runoff occurs during P2, the shot volume is too large.
3. Phase 3 (P3): The Drying and Aeration Phase
- Cutoff Timing: Cease all irrigation 2 to 3 hours before lights-off (or up to 4 hours before lights-off for aggressive generative steering).
- The Overnight Dry-Back: Allow the root zone to dry down undisturbed throughout the dark cycle. The target overnight dry-back is 15% to 25% VWC for vegetative growth (e.g., dropping from 65% down to 45% VWC) and 25% to 35% VWC for generative steering during early flower (e.g., dropping from 60% down to 30% VWC).
- Biological Impact: The P3 dry-back pulls fresh air deep into the basalt fiber matrix, driving rapid oxygenation of root tissue and preventing Pythium colonization.
Never deliver a massive 500 mL single watering to a rockwool block once per day. Flooding rockwool in a single heavy event compresses the fiber matrix, washes out air pockets, and leaves the root zone submerged in stagnant water for 12 hours followed by extreme drought. Rockwool performs best when pulsed with 5 to 10 micro-shots of 80 to 120 mL each, maintaining dynamic oxygenation and stable pore EC.
Coconut Coir: High-Frequency Fertigation and Osmotic Salt Dynamics
Derived from processed coconut husks, coco coir is a hydroponic medium masquerading as soil. While it resembles dark, rich dirt, its physical and chemical properties are strictly hydroponic. Coco coir possesses a high Water Holding Capacity (WHC) while retaining an exceptional 20% to 25% Air-Filled Porosity (AFP). Because coco fibers maintain microscopic air channels even when dripping wet, it is virtually impossible to over-water established cannabis plants in properly drained coco coir.
1. The “Never Let Coco Dry Out” Law
The single greatest mistake made by growers transitioning from soil to coco is letting the container “dry out until the pot is light.” In organic soil, drying out is beneficial to pull oxygen into dense clay particles. In coco coir, allowing the substrate to experience a large dry-back (> 25% VWC) is catastrophic:
- Osmotic Salt Concentration: As water evaporates from coco fibers, dissolved fertilizer salts remain behind in the shrinking moisture film. A pore water solution that entered the pot at 1.8 mS/cm EC concentrates up to 3.5 or 4.5 mS/cm EC as the pot dries. This intense salinity creates physiological drought, incinerating root hair tips and burning leaf margins.
- Calcium Starvation: Coco coir has a high Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) naturally loaded with potassium and sodium. When the moisture film thins and salt concentration spikes, the coir fibers aggressively bind divalent calcium (Ca2+), locking it away from the plant and releasing excess potassium, triggering severe calcium deficiency spotting.
2. High-Frequency Fertigation (HFF) Frequency Protocol
To unlock the explosive growth potential of coco coir, cultivators must implement High-Frequency Fertigation (HFF), applying complete nutrient solution multiple times per day:
- Small Containers (1 to 2 Gallon Pots / Coco Slabs): Irrigate 3 to 6 times daily during lights-on. Each event applies a small pulse (150 to 250 mL per plant) designed to generate 10% to 20% runoff.
- Standard Containers (3 to 5 Gallon Pots): Irrigate 1 to 2 times daily in early vegetative growth, increasing to 2 to 4 times daily during peak flowering transpiration.
- The Runoff Imperative: Every fertigation event must generate at least 10% to 15% leachate drainage. This continuous flushing action washes out residual salts, preventing pore water EC from climbing more than 0.3 mS/cm above input EC.
Question: We recently upgraded to high-intensity 800W LEDs and noticed our coco pots drying out much faster. Runoff EC spiked from 2.0 input to 3.4 output. Should we water with larger shot sizes once a day, or add more shots?
High PPFD from modern LED fixtures dramatically accelerates canopy transpiration and photosynthetic carbon fixation. When you water coco once a day with a large volume, the intense transpiration pulls water out of the pot faster than the plant absorbs salts, causing rapid intra-day moisture depletion. As VWC plunges, dissolved fertilizer salts crystallize inside the coco fibers, driving pore EC to 3.4 mS/cm and inducing severe osmotic stress.
Never increase single-shot volume. Instead, increase irrigation shot frequency from 1 event to 4 or 5 micro-shots per day. Spreading the daily irrigation volume across multiple small pulses keeps the coco fibers constantly saturated above 50% VWC, preventing salt concentration and continuously flushing leachate. Your runoff EC will drop back to 2.2 mS/cm within 48 hours, and your plants will resume explosive vegetative growth.
Peat-Based Soilless Blends: Capillary Drying and Hydrophobic Wetting
Peat-based soilless mixtures (such as Pro-Mix HP, Sunshine Mix #4, or custom peat/perlite blends) are formulated from partially decomposed sphagnum moss amended with horticultural perlite and dolomitic limestone. Peat moss possesses very different physical chemistry than coco coir:
1. The Need for Moderate Dry-Down Cycles
Unlike coco coir, sphagnum peat moss holds water tightly within microscopic cellular structures. When peat is saturated, its Air-Filled Porosity drops to approximately 10% to 15%. If a cultivator irrigates peat multiple times per day like coco coir, the substrate remains waterlogged, oxygen diffusion plummets to near zero, and roots succumb to anaerobic asphyxiation and root rot. Peat-based mixes require a moderate dry-back cycle (25% to 40% VWC drop) between irrigations:
- In 5-gallon peat containers, irrigation frequency is typically once every 2 to 3 days during vegetative growth, and once every 1 to 2 days during peak flowering.
- Determine irrigation timing by container weight (lifting the pot): irrigate when the container feels approximately 50% lighter than its fully saturated weight.
2. The Hydrophobic Wetting Trap
The fatal flaw of sphagnum peat moss is hydrophobicity. If peat is allowed to dry out completely (dropping below 20% VWC), the organic lignin and waxes coating the moss fibers cross-link and repel water. When a grower pours water onto bone-dry peat, the water does not absorb; it sheets off the surface, runs down the inner walls of the pot, and exits the drainage holes immediately, leaving the root core completely dry.
To prevent and remediate hydrophobic peat:
- Never let peat dry to the point where the soil pulls away from the container edges.
- Add an organic horticultural wetting agent (such as yucca extract / saponins or polysorbate surfactant) at 0.5 to 1.0 mL per gallon to your irrigation water. Wetting agents dramatically reduce water surface tension, forcing moisture to penetrate hydrophobic peat fibers uniformly.
When dry peat creates preferred water channels down the sides of the pot, growers mistakenly think the plant has been fully irrigated because water pours out into the saucer. Always inspect container weight before and after watering. If a 5-gallon pot drains instantly but still feels feather-light, the root ball is hydrophobic. Place the container in a shallow water tray for 30 minutes to allow sub-surface capillary bottom-wicking to rehydrate the peat core.
Organic Living Soil: Soil Moisture Tension and Biological Preservation
In organic living soil beds and no-till containers amended with compost, worm castings, biochar, and mineral rock dust, irrigation frequency is governed by microbiology rather than hydroponic salt flushing. In living soil, plants do not feed on free mineral ions poured from a synthetic bottle; they rely on mycorrhizal fungi, beneficial bacteria, protozoa, and nematodes to break down organic matter and deliver plant-available nutrients directly to root hairs.
1. The Microbial Moisture Sweet Spot (80 to 120 mbar Tension)
Soil microorganisms require continuous, stable moisture to survive and metabolize. If living soil dries out to the point where plants wilt, delicate mycorrhizal fungal hyphae desicate, earthworms die, and beneficial bacteria enter dormant spore phases. Conversely, if living soil is flooded to saturation, air is expelled, and the soil turns anaerobic, killing aerobic microbes and producing toxic anaerobic byproducts (such as hydrogen sulfide and alcohols).
Living soil must be maintained at a steady moisture tension between 80 and 120 millibars (mbar), measured using an analog or digital vacuum tensiometer (such as an Irrometer):
- 0 – 50 mbar: Saturated / Waterlogged (anaerobic zone; cease watering immediately).
- 80 – 120 mbar: Optimal Living Soil Sweet Spot: Ideal balance of capillary moisture and continuous oxygen diffusion.
- > 200 mbar: Excessively dry; fungal networks begin to collapse.
2. The 5% to 10% Volume Rule (Zero Runoff)
Unlike hydroponic systems where 10% to 20% runoff is required to flush mineral salts, organic living soil must never be watered to heavy runoff. Runoff in organic soil leaches water-soluble humic acids, fulvic fractions, and precious microbial metabolites out of the container. Apply 5% to 8% of total container volume per watering event (e.g., apply 0.5 to 0.8 gallons of water to a 10-gallon soil pot). Apply water slowly through automated micro-sprinklers, drip rings, or gravity-fed Blumat ceramic carrots to ensure uniform lateral moisture dispersion across the living topsoil mulch layer.
Inert Aggregates and Recirculating Systems: Perlite, LECA, and DWC
For sterile aggregate hydroponics and recirculating water culture, irrigation frequency shifts from moisture retention management to dynamic fluid exchange:
- Expanded Clay Pebbles (LECA / Hydroton): Clay pebbles possess near-zero water holding capacity (10% to 15%) but extraordinary air-filled porosity (> 60%). In Ebb and Flow (Flood and Drain) systems, table trays must be flooded every 2 to 4 hours during lights-on (typically 4 to 6 floods daily for 15 minutes each). In recirculating top-feed drip systems using LECA, pumps can run continuously (24/7) without drowning root systems, provided the reservoir is highly aerated.
- 100% Perlite Aggregates: Coarse horticultural perlite drains instantly. In Dutch bucket systems, drip emitters deliver short 2-minute shots every 45 to 60 minutes throughout the light cycle to keep perlite particles coated with an active nutrient film.
- Deep Water Culture (DWC) and Nutrient Film Technique (NFT): In true liquid hydroponics, irrigation frequency is continuous. Roots are permanently submerged in aerated solution (DWC) or bathed in a continuous laminar stream (NFT). The critical operational variable here is not frequency, but dissolved oxygen (DO > 8.0 mg/L) maintained via commercial regenerative air blowers or pure oxygen injection.
Environmental Drivers: PPFD, Vapor Pressure Deficit, and Transpiration Flux
A master cultivator never irrigates according to a static schedule because plant water consumption is dynamically driven by the atmospheric drying power of the grow room:
| Environmental Factor | Measured Condition | Canopy Transpiration Rate | Required Irrigation Frequency Adjustment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD) | High VPD (> 1.5 kPa; hot, dry air) | Extreme Transpiration: Plants transpire water rapidly to cool foliage | Increase daily shot frequency by 30% to 50%; lower nutrient EC by 0.3 mS/cm to prevent salt buildup |
| Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD) | Low VPD (< 0.8 kPa; cool, humid air) | Stagnant Transpiration: Water cannot evaporate from leaf stomata | Decrease shot frequency; extend dry-back periods; raise nutrient EC to deliver adequate daily minerals |
| Light Intensity (PPFD) | High Light (> 900 μmol/m²/s + CO2) | Accelerated Photosynthesis: High biomass synthesis and rapid root uptake | Increase shot frequency; shorten P1 intervals; maintain peak VWC |
| Light Intensity (PPFD) | Low Light (< 400 μmol/m²/s / Seedling) | Minimal Transpiration: Slow water consumption | Infrequent single daily or alternate-day waterings; avoid saturating cold substrates |
Delivery Hardware Engineering: Pressure-Compensating Drip Sizing and Runoff Math
To achieve uniform irrigation frequency across a commercial canopy, gravity-draining spaghetti lines and open drippers are completely unacceptable. A minor 5% difference in pipe slope or line friction causes downstream plants to receive 40% less water than upstream plants, inducing erratic moisture dry-backs across the bench.
Commercial automated fertigation systems must be engineered around Pressure-Compensating (PC) Drip Emitters (such as Netafim Woodpecker or Rain Bird PC emitters):
- Operating Pressure Window: PC emitters incorporate an internal elastomeric diaphragm that regulates fluid discharge to an exact flow rate (typically 0.5 Gallons Per Hour / 2.0 Liters Per Hour) across feed pressures from 10 to 45 PSI. Every plant in a 1,000-plant room receives the exact same volume of water down to the milliliter.
- Shot Volume Calibration Formula: Calculate exact pump runtime per pulse shot using emitter flow rate:
- Daily Runoff Percentage Calculation: Monitor leachate efficiency daily:
Runtime (seconds) = ≤ft( (Target Shot Volume (mL) / Emitter Flow Rate (mL/sec)) )
For a standard 0.5 GPH (1,892 mL/hour = 31.5 mL/minute) emitter, delivering a precise 100 mL pulse shot requires exactly 3 minutes and 10 seconds of pump runtime.
Runoff (\%) = ≤ft( (Collected Leachate Volume (mL) / Total Input Volume (mL)) ) × 100
Target 10% to 15% runoff in coco and rockwool. If runoff drops below 8%, add an additional pulse shot during P1; if runoff exceeds 25%, reduce P2 shot duration.
Never rely on a single drip emitter per container. If a particle of mineral scale or organic debris plugs that single dripper, the plant will experience severe drought and death within 24 hours under high-intensity LED lighting. Always install two or more emitters per container (for example, dual 0.3 GPH emitters instead of a single 0.5 GPH emitter). Emitter redundancy guarantees water delivery even if one line experiences partial clogging.
Common Cultivator Mistakes: Calendar Watering and Anaerobic Saucers
Cultivators frequently fall into habitual maintenance routines that undermine root-zone health:
1. The Calendar Watering Trap (“Water Every Monday, Wednesday, Friday”)
Cannabis is a dynamic living organism whose water consumption changes daily based on developmental stage, root volume, and room VPD. A seedling in a 3-gallon pot may need water once every 5 days; that exact same plant at week 5 of flowering under 1,000 μmol/m²/s PPFD will transpire 1.5 gallons of water every 24 hours. Watering by a fixed calendar schedule guarantees over-watering during early vegetative growth and catastrophic under-watering during peak floral stack. Irrigate based on measured substrate VWC, container weight, or tensiometer readings.
2. Letting Containers Sit in Stagnant Runoff Saucers
Allowing pots to sit in stagnant runoff trays is an agronomic death sentence. When leachate drains from the pot, it contains concentrated waste salts, displaced sodium, and root organic exudates. If the container sits in this pooled liquid, the bottom 2 inches of substrate reabsorb the concentrated brine via capillary wicking, creating a permanent waterlogged, hyper-saline anaerobic dead zone at the base of the container. Always elevate containers on pot elevators or plumb drainage trays to an automated sump basin.
3. Watering Right Before Lights-Off
Applying a heavy irrigation event 30 minutes before the lights shut down saturates the substrate just as root transpirational pull drops to near zero. Substrate temperature cools, humidity inside the root zone hits 100%, and air-filled porosity remains compromised for 12 hours. This cold, oxygen-deprived environment creates ideal conditions for Pythium and Fusarium infection. Always ensure the final irrigation event concludes 2 to 3 hours prior to lights-off.
When hand-watering with a hose or watering can, never dump a heavy stream of water directly onto the bare substrate surface from height. The kinetic impact of falling water collapses macropores, washes fine peat or coco dust downward, and compacts the topsoil into a dense, cement-like crust that blocks oxygen diffusion. Use a multi-pattern watering wand with a gentle “shower” breaker head, or install automated drip manifolds.
Practical Decision Matrix and Irrigation Schedule Flowchart
Use this comprehensive engineering decision matrix to configure daily irrigation frequency across all primary cultivation media:
| Substrate Type | Early Vegetative Stage | Late Vegetative / Stretch | Peak Flowering (Wks 3 – 7) | Late Ripening / Flush |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rockwool Blocks / Slabs | 1 – 2 shots/day; 15% dry-back; zero runoff until roots reach slab | 4 – 6 shots/day (P1 ramping); 10% runoff; 20% overnight dry-back | 6 – 10 shots/day (P1 + P2); 15% runoff; 25% – 30% generative dry-back | 2 – 4 shots/day; lower EC; 20% dry-back; maintain moderate moisture |
| Coco Coir (1-3 Gallon Pots) | 1 – 2 shots/day; 10% runoff; keep moist; EC 1.4 mS/cm | 2 – 4 shots/day; 15% runoff; EC 1.8 mS/cm; small dry-backs | 4 – 6+ shots/day (HFF); 15-20% runoff; EC 2.0-2.2; never dry out | 1 – 2 shots/day; 20% runoff; low EC flush to strip residual salts |
| Peat-Based Soilless (5 Gallon) | Once every 3 to 4 days; 30% dry-back by pot weight; zero runoff | Once every 2 days; 10% runoff; lift pot to verify 50% weight loss | Once daily to every other day; 10-15% runoff; check moisture with probe | Once every 2 to 3 days; low EC leach; prevent hydrophobic drying |
| Organic Living Soil (Beds/Pots) | 5% container volume every 3 days; zero runoff; 100 mbar tension | 5% volume every 2 days; continuous Blumat carrots; mulch cover | 5% – 8% volume daily or auto-micro-drip; keep mulch moist; zero runoff | Reduce volume slightly; maintain living biology until harvest day |
| LECA Flood & Drain | 2 floods/day (15 min each); lights-on only; well aerated | 4 floods/day; spaced evenly across 18-hour light cycle | 4 – 6 floods/day; 15 min soak; rapid drainage; reservoir chilled | 2 – 3 floods/day; clear water leach; DO > 8 mg/L |
If commercial TDR soil probes are outside your budget, place one representative container in your grow room on a standard digital shipping scale (tare to zero when dry). Log the saturated container weight immediately after full runoff, and log the weight 2 hours before lights-off. Tracking container mass in kilograms gives you 100% accurate, real-time gram-for-gram data on canopy transpiration and substrate dry-backs for less than fifty dollars.
Scientific References
- Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Møller, I. M., & Murphy, A. (2015). Plant Physiology and Development (6th ed.). Sinauer Associates.
- Bugbee, B. (2004). Nutrient management in recirculating hydroponic culture. Acta Horticulturae, 648, 99-112.
- Marschner, H. (2012). Marschner’s Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants (3rd ed.). Academic Press.
- Zheng, Y. (2021). Handbook of Cannabis Production in Controlled Environments. CRC Press.
- Raviv, M., & Heinrich Lieth, J. (2008). Soilless Culture: Theory and Practice. Elsevier Science.
- van Iersel, M. W. (2017). Using moisture sensors for precision irrigation of container-grown plants. HortTechnology, 27(4), 444-449.
- Sonneveld, C., & Voogt, W. (2009). Plant Nutrition of Greenhouse Crops. Springer Science & Business Media.
- Stanghellini, C., & Voogt, W. (2019). Managing nutrition in hydroponic greenhouse systems. HortScience, 54(5), 788-795.
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